The following article is a part of our Signature Pedagogies in the K-12 Classroom series. “Signature pedagogies,” as defined by Schulman in 2005, are “the types of teaching that organize the fundamental ways in which future practitioners are educated for their new professions” and they include three critical aspects: how to think, perform, and act with integrity in the profession. Click here for a primer on the importance of signature pedagogies. 

Introduction

I spent too much time trying to decide whether and how to break up the discipline known as “English Language Arts.” After all, reading, writing, and oral language are all reciprocal processes (Frankel et al., 2016), and we can divide the concept of “Language Arts” into two main categories: receptive processes (i.e., reading, listening) and productive processes (i.e., writing, speaking).Though these skills may be taught in separate blocks of time during the school day, best practice is that they are essentially linked in purposeful ways. This is especially true for primary age children who are learning to read: a study by Kim et al. (2023) found that word reading and spelling were strongly related, whereas reading comprehension and written composition were only moderately related.

For the other disciplines, such as mathematics, science, and social studies, the suggested signature pedagogies apply K-12. There is such a significant difference between Learning to Read and Reading to Learn, however, that it seemed irresponsible to try to insinuate that a kindergarten reading lesson on teaching letter sounds should look similar to a high school lesson that deconstructs the meaning of George Orwell’s 1984.

It comes down to the types of curriculum. Learning to Read is essentially a building blocks curriculum, which means that one set of skills must be mastered before moving on to the next. Reading to Learn, on the other hand, is a spiral curriculum, which means that the same set of skills are cycled through with consistently more difficult material. This is not to say that there is no overlap between Learning to Read and Reading to Learn, especially in the middle and upper elementary grades. Generally, however, a student must have a basic knowledge of how to read before they can divine meaning from what they have read.

Also, a quick word on The Science of Reading, which I tend to call “The Science of Learning to Read” (after all, 40% of the Science of Reading is based on principles of learning to read). I am, of course, a proponent of the tenets of The Science of Reading, which state that:

• Reading pedagogies should be based upon science from multiple fields of study;
• Reading pedagogies should evolve as new studies uncover new evidence; and
• The 5 Big Parts of reading are: Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, Fluency, Vocabulary, and Comprehension (National Center on Improving Literacy)

I am also in favor of school districts adopting or creating curriculum based upon empirical evidence regarding how young people learn to read, but with this word of caution: it is crucial to remember that because reading is a building blocks curriculum, students will proceed through the building blocks at different rates. The rate at which brains make the connection between written symbols and sound will vary significantly, and to attempt to teach phonemic awareness and phonics in a “one size fits all” lesson will only frustrate both those who need more time and those who are ready to move on.

For all of these reasons, the signature pedagogies for “English Language Arts” will therefore be broken up into the following parts, which is as simple as I feel these complex processes can be made:

Part 1: Learning to Read

Part 2: Reading to Learn

Part 3: Writing

The concepts of Oral Language will be interwoven between each of these three parts.

What is Reading?

Learning to read, also called literacy (Frankel et al., 2016), is one of the most fundamental skills taught in education, serving as the gateway to lifelong learning. For the purposes of this article, we will refer to this concept as “reading” or “learning to read,” rather than “literacy,” however; the term “literacy” is frequently used in other disciplines in which students learn to interpret symbols for understanding of concepts.

The discipline of reading encompasses the systematic study and practice of decoding, understanding, and interpreting written language (Frankel et al., 2016). At its core, the discipline views reading as both a skill to be mastered and a pathway to unlocking knowledge across all subject areas, fostering independent learning and lifelong curiosity.

Philosophically, reading education is informed by the belief that all learners deserve equitable access to literacy and the opportunities it provides (Valtierra & Siegel, 2019). This philosophy emphasizes the need for deliberate, research-based instruction that addresses the diverse needs of learners. By blending scientific understanding of how children learn to read with an empathetic approach to teaching, the discipline seeks to empower students not only to read but to comprehend, analyze, and apply information in meaningful ways.

Reading and The Brain

Brain research underscores the importance of explicit instruction in teaching reading. Studies have shown that reading is not an innate skill but one that must be taught and practiced systematically. For instance, in a study by Rastle et al., researchers provided either explicit or “discovery-learning” instruction to participants on a made-up language. All participants received the same number of hours of training, and the researchers found that “virtually all participants in the explicit-instruction group reached a good standard of performance on both generalization tasks, but only 5 of 24 participants in the discovery-learning group showed the same level of performance.”

Effective reading instruction engages neural pathways associated with language processing, connecting visual, auditory, and cognitive functions. Explicit instruction ensures these connections are strengthened, helping students decode words, understand syntax, and develop fluency. Without this deliberate approach, many students struggle to transition from recognizing individual letters to comprehending entire texts.

Moreover, English presents unique challenges for learning to read compared to more phonetically consistent languages like Spanish (Seymour et al., 2003). The English language includes numerous irregular spelling patterns, silent letters, and exceptions to phonetic rules, making decoding more complex. For example, while Spanish has a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds, English words like “knight” or “read” (past tense) require additional context and instruction to interpret correctly. These complexities necessitate a structured and intentional approach to teaching reading in English, emphasizing phonics, vocabulary, and comprehension strategies.

What Type of Curriculum is Learning to Read?

The building blocks curriculum is defined by its sequential and cumulative nature, requiring teachers to scaffold instruction effectively. Moreover, students will master individual building blocks at different rates, requiring personalized instruction in the form of one-on-one learning or small groups with peers at a similar level. Below, we outline the signature pedagogies that are instrumental in teaching students to read, emphasizing evidence-based practices that address diverse learning needs.

What are Essential Learning to Read Signature Pedagogies?

As with all articles in this series, it’s important to remember that these pedagogies, while based on extant research, are not an exhaustive list of everything that can and should happen in a classroom. We use the term “essential” because these pedagogical methods of instruction are foundational to the definition and purpose of this discipline

As a reminder, there are three critical elements of any signature pedagogy: how to think, how to perform, and how to act with integrity in the discipline/profession. Each of the following Essential Signature Pedagogies helps students develop one or more of these critical elements.

Essential Signature Pedagogy #1: Small Group or Individualized Lessons

As we read earlier, the brain’s ability to associate sound with a symbol is challenging for all students, and brains will achieve this ability at different rates (Rastle et al., 2021). Effective reading instruction often begins with tailored lessons that address individual student readiness and data-driven insights. Small group settings or one-on-one instruction allow educators to:

• Provide targeted support based on specific skill deficits.
• Adjust pacing to suit the needs of each learner.
• Foster a safe environment where students feel comfortable asking questions and taking risks.

This personalized approach ensures that struggling readers receive the focused attention they need while advanced readers are challenged appropriately.

Essential Signature Pedagogy #2: Diverse Reading Materials

A cornerstone of effective reading instruction is the use of a wide array of reading materials (Valtierra & Siegel, 2019). Offering diverse texts ensures that students remain engaged and motivated by providing:

• Culturally relevant stories that reflect students’ experiences.
• Genre variety to expose students to fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and informational texts.
• Differentiated reading levels to meet individual proficiencies.

By integrating a broad spectrum of materials, educators can inspire a love for reading and support the development of critical thinking skills.

Essential Signature Pedagogy #3: Explicit Instruction (Teacher Explanation, Teacher Modeling, Multiple Opportunities for All Students to Respond)

Breaking down this approach into specific components helps clarify its effectiveness:

1. Phonemic Awareness
   • Teaching students to recognize and manipulate the sounds in spoken words.
   • Engaging students with oral activities like rhyming, segmenting, and blending sounds.
2. Phonics Instruction
   • Providing systematic and explicit instruction on letter-sound relationships.
   • Incorporating hands-on activities, such as building words with letter tiles, to reinforce understanding.
3. Fluency Development
   • Modeling fluent reading through teacher read-alouds.
   • Providing opportunities for repeated reading practice to improve speed, accuracy, and expression.
4. Vocabulary Instruction
   • Explicitly teaching new words and their meanings.
   • Encouraging students to use new vocabulary in writing and real-world contexts.
5. Comprehension Strategies
   • Demonstrating techniques such as summarizing, questioning, and predicting.
   • Checking for understanding through discussions, written responses, or graphic organizers.

Essential Signature Pedagogy #4: Ongoing Assessment and Progress Monitoring

An essential component of excellent reading instruction is the continuous assessment and monitoring of student progress. Regular assessments help identify individual strengths and areas for growth, allowing educators to refine instruction to meet specific needs. Effective strategies for progress monitoring include:

• Running Records: Analyzing students’ reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension during one-on-one reading sessions.
• Phonics Screeners: Assessing mastery of letter-sound relationships to guide phonics instruction.
• Fluency Timings: Measuring words read per minute to track improvements in fluency.
• Comprehension Checks: Using written responses, discussions, and quizzes to evaluate understanding of texts.
• Data Tracking: Maintaining records of assessments to observe trends and inform instructional adjustments.

In Summary

The process of learning to read demands a thoughtful and intentional approach grounded in the principles of a building blocks curriculum. By implementing signature pedagogies such as individualized instruction, diverse reading materials, explicit teaching of foundational skills, and ongoing assessment, educators can create an environment where every student thrives. These strategies not only cultivate proficient readers but also instill a lifelong passion for learning.

References

Frankel, K. K., Becker, B. L. C., Rowe, M. W., Pearson, D. P. (2016). From “What is reading?” to What is literacy? Journal of Education, 196(3). https://www.academia.edu/75901187/From_What_is_Reading_to_What_is_Literacy

Kim, Y. G., Wolters, A., Lee, J. W. (2023). Reading and writing relations are not uniform: They differ by the linguistic grain size, development phase, and measurement. Review of Educational Research, 94(3), 311-342. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/00346543231178830

Rastle, K., Lally, C., and Taylor, J. S. H. (2021). The dramatic impact of explicit instruction on learning to read in a new writing system. Psychological Science, 32(4). https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0956797620968790

Seymour, P. H. K., Aro, M., & Erskine, J. M. (2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology, 94, 143-174. https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1348/000712603321661859

Valtierra, K. M., & Siegel, L. N. (2019). Dispositions for inclusive literacy: Fostering an equitable and empowering education for academically diverse learners. Journal of Curriculum & Teaching, 8(3), 111-121. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1227657.pdf