By Kate Wolfe Maxlow
You probably have a favorite instructional model, even if you don’t realize it. Instructional models are overarching approaches to teaching that involve a series of steps in a particular order, designed to help students think and apply their knowledge in specific ways. The steps in each model, and the order in which they are typically completed, support the larger purpose of the model itself. Some models focus on fact or skill fluency, while others emphasize practical application or critical thinking.
How do you know which model to use and when? It depends on your learning standard and the type of thinking you want to elicit from students. Some instructional models are more common in particular content areas, and new ones emerge regularly.
Below are some of the most common instructional models, along with their purposes, steps, and pros and cons.
Case Studies
Purpose: Originally used in business and medical education, the case study method is gaining popularity across disciplines. Students are given a (usually real-world) scenario from the perspective of a decision-maker who must solve a problem. They receive a description of the issue along with supporting data and work independently or in teams to analyze the situation and devise a solution. Case studies are similar to problem-based learning but focus on a specific scenario rather than a broad problem.
Examples:
- Diagnosing a patient based on symptoms and body system knowledge
- Analyzing school discipline data and recommending policy changes
- Assessing the environmental and economic impact of a proposed affordable housing project
- Investigating the decline of oysters in the Chesapeake Bay using historical records
Most Common Steps:
- Define the issue
- Determine the goal of the analysis
- Uncover the context of the problem
- Consider key facts
- Brainstorm alternatives
- Make a recommendation and justify it
Pros:
- Develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills
- Engages students in real-world applications
- Can be more time-efficient than problem-based learning
Cons:
- Requires significant preparation, including gathering case materials
- Students make recommendations but do not implement solutions
When to Use It: Most commonly used in science and business courses but also valuable in social studies for analyzing primary sources.
Challenge-Based Learning
Purpose: Originally designed by Apple, challenge-based learning (CBL) teaches students to apply their learning—particularly with technology—in authentic ways to benefit their schools and communities. It blends elements of project-based learning, problem-based learning, and service learning, often involving collaboration with community organizations.
Examples:
- Creating a social media campaign to increase museum attendance
- Developing a PSA to encourage students to use tap water instead of bottled water and tracking the impact
- Researching a community’s biggest environmental issues and implementing strategies to reduce its carbon footprint
Most Common Steps:
- Engage – Students develop an actionable challenge to improve their school or community
- Investigate – Students research causes and potential solutions
- Act – Students implement a solution and evaluate its effectiveness
Pros:
- High student engagement and ownership
- Encourages problem-solving at the highest levels
- Provides real-world experience and community impact
Cons:
- Projects can be unpredictable and difficult to assess
- Establishing and maintaining community partnerships requires time and effort
- Implementing solutions can take significant instructional time
When to Use It: Works best in courses with real-world applications; particularly effective for older students who can engage directly with community organizations.
Direct Instruction
Purpose: Direct instruction helps students develop fluency with facts or skills. It is one of the most commonly used instructional models and one of the few teacher-centered methods on this list.
Examples:
- Teaching arithmetic operations
- Teaching primary source analysis
- Teaching students to identify the main idea of a passage
- Teaching measurement tool usage
Most Common Steps: (Madeline Hunter Model)
- Anticipatory Set – Activates prior knowledge
- Objective/Purpose – Communicates learning goals
- Input – Presents new information
- Modeling – Demonstrates skill or concept
- Checking for Understanding – Assesses comprehension and reteaches as needed
- Guided Practice – Students practice with teacher support
- Independent Practice – Students apply learning on their own
- Closure – Reviews key points
Pros:
- Fast and efficient for skill-building
- Provides clear expectations for students
Cons:
- Less student choice and ownership
- Relevance can feel less immediate compared to other models
When to Use It: Best for teaching foundational skills that require fluency.
Inquiry-Based Learning
Purpose: Inquiry-based learning teaches students to ask questions and seek answers through exploration and investigation.
Examples:
- Conducting science experiments to test hypotheses
- Researching a historical event and analyzing different perspectives
- Investigating how different variables impact plant growth
Most Common Steps:
- Elicit Prior Knowledge – Engage students by activating their background knowledge
- Engage – Introduce a topic or problem that sparks curiosity
- Explore – Students conduct investigations, research, or experiments
- Explain – Students articulate their findings and conclusions
- Elaborate – Teacher and students expand on the learning, making connections
- Extend – Students apply their learning beyond the classroom
- Evaluate – Students reflect on and assess their understanding
Pros:
- Gives students ownership over their learning
- Encourages critical thinking and problem-solving
- Can be highly engaging and motivating
Cons:
- Requires time to teach students how to engage effectively in inquiry
- Some students may struggle without sufficient scaffolding
- Can be challenging for teachers to guide without over-directing
When to Use It: Inquiry-based learning is commonly used in science but can be applied in any subject where students need to develop questions and seek answers.
Jurisprudential Inquiry
Purpose: This method teaches students how to examine issues from multiple viewpoints, form opinions based on evidence, and present their arguments. The process involves researching information and presenting arguments to a class-selected board of arbitrators, who then render a decision.
Examples:
- Debating the use of disposable vs. cloth diapers
- Analyzing proposed changes to the school curriculum
- Debating censorship laws and their implications
- Discussing whether historical monuments should be removed
Most Common Steps:
- Orientation to the Issue – Students are divided into teams and assigned a stance on a given topic
- Identify and Define the Issue – Teams conduct research, read sources, interview experts, and gather evidence
- Synthesize Research into Arguments – Students develop arguments, anticipate counterarguments, and prepare presentations
- Prepare Board of Arbitrators – Arbitrators develop questions and strategies for evaluating the arguments
- Public Meeting – Teams present their arguments to the board, which listens and asks questions
- Clarification and Consensus – The board deliberates and reaches a decision, explaining their reasoning
- Application – Students reflect on how their learning applies to real-world situations
Pros:
- Encourages students to consider multiple perspectives
- Teaches research, debate, and persuasive communication skills
- Motivates students by engaging them in relevant and controversial topics
Cons:
- Requires substantial scaffolding, especially for students new to debate
- Can take significant class time to implement
- Students may need guidance in respectful discourse and evidence-based reasoning
When to Use It: Best for subjects that involve complex, real-world debates such as social studies, ethics, and law-related topics
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
Purpose: In problem-based learning, students receive an open-ended, real-world problem before instruction begins. They then acquire knowledge as they work toward a solution. Depending on the problem’s complexity, lessons can last from a single day to multiple weeks.
Examples:
- Developing a campaign to reduce littering at school
- Researching ethical issues in chocolate production and creating awareness materials
- Designing a budgeting tool to help families manage household finances
Most Common Steps:
- Define the Problem – Students analyze the given problem and determine what they need to solve
- Assess Prior Knowledge – Students identify what they already know about the topic
- Research – Students determine what additional information they need and where to find it
- Develop Solutions – Students brainstorm and evaluate potential solutions
- Implement and Test – Students choose a solution and apply it
- Reflect and Report – Students present their findings and reflect on the process
Pros:
- Engages students by presenting problems before instruction, creating a natural need to learn
- Encourages collaboration and critical thinking
- Provides real-world relevance and application
Cons:
- Teachers must design engaging, meaningful problems
- Group work requires structure and guidance to be productive
- Can take significant class time, depending on the complexity of the problem
When to Use It: Works well in any subject with real-world applications, including STEM, business, and social sciences.
Project-Based Learning (also PBL)
Purpose: Project-based learning (PBL) allows students to apply what they have learned by creating a product or performance. These projects often span multiple lessons and integrate multiple disciplines. Unlike problem-based learning, PBL may or may not involve solving a specific problem.
Examples:
- Designing and building a haunted house based on Gothic literature themes
- Creating a carnival game to demonstrate probability concepts
- Writing and performing a play about early 20th-century factory conditions
Most Common Steps:
- Develop a Driving Question – The teacher poses a question that guides student inquiry (e.g., “How can we create more environmentally friendly toys for toddlers?”)
- Entry Event – A hook or event to introduce the project and spark student interest
- Define Project Expectations – The teacher outlines the project’s parameters, which can be highly structured or more open-ended
- Work on the Project – Students complete the project over several days or weeks, with the teacher acting as a facilitator
- Present the Project – Students showcase their work in a real-world setting (e.g., to a public audience or community panel)
- Evaluate – The teacher assesses the project using a rubric
Pros:
- Allows students to take ownership of their learning
- Encourages collaboration and real-world application
- Increases student engagement and long-term retention
Cons:
- Can require substantial planning and preparation
- Often takes longer than expected when first implemented
- Group work requires clear expectations and support
When to Use It: Works well across all subjects and is often used in interdisciplinary projects.
Service Learning
Purpose: Service learning combines classroom learning with real-world community service. Unlike simple volunteer work, service learning involves students applying academic knowledge to address an authentic need in their community.
Examples:
- Developing anti-bullying initiatives in schools
- Creating take-home books to support early childhood literacy
- Designing art installations to beautify a public space
Most Common Steps:
- Conduct a Needs Assessment – Students identify a genuine community issue and reflect on its impact
- Plan a Project – Students determine how to address the need and outline required time, skills, and resources
- Implement the Project – Students take action and execute their plan
- Reflect on the Experience – Students assess the impact of their work and what they learned
- Present Findings – Students share their project results with a broader audience
Pros:
- Highly motivating because students see tangible community impact
- Develops problem-solving, critical thinking, and leadership skills
- Encourages civic engagement and responsibility
Cons:
- Can be time-intensive to plan and implement
- Some topics are more naturally suited to service learning than others
- Teachers may need to find creative ways to align service projects with academic standards
When to Use It: Service learning can be incorporated into almost any subject, particularly in units related to the environment, social justice, public health, or community development.